Blaise Pascal, the seventeenth-century mathematician and philosopher who wrote in his Pensées, “ ‘God is, or He is not.’ But to which side shall we incline? Reason can decide nothing here.”

(most famously, the Oxford philosopher Nick Bostrom

“It is an old maxim of mine that when you have excluded the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth, unless the truth is a hypothesis it didn’t occur to you to consider.”

“It is an old maxim of mine that when you have excluded the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, must be the truth.”

The lesson about inference: you have to be careful about the universe of theories you consider. Just as there may be more than one solution to a quadratic equation, there may be multiple theories that give rise to the same observation, and if we don’t consider them all, our inferences may lead us badly astray.

You know, the most amazing thing happened to me tonight. I was coming here, on the way to the lecture, and I came in through the parking lot. And you won’t believe what happened. I saw a car with the license plate ARW 357. Can you imagine? Of all the millions of license plates in the state, what was the chance that I would see that particular one t

That may seem like an unfair prejudice, but without some prejudices we would run the risk of walking around in a constant state of astoundedness. Richard Feynman famously captured this state of mind:

So here’s the procedure for ruling out the null hypothesis, in executive bullet-point form: Run an experiment. Suppose the null hypothesis is true, and let p be the probability (under that hypothesis) of getting results as extreme as those observed. The number p is called the p-value. If it is very small, rejoice; you get to say your results are st

If I claim I can make the sun come up with my mind, and it does, you shouldn’t be impressed by my powers; but if I claim I can make the sun not come up, and it doesn’t, then I’ve demonstrated an outcome very unlikely under the null hypothesis, and you’d best take notice.