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Idaho (/ˈaɪdəhoʊ/ ⓘ EYE-də-hoh) is a landlocked state in the Pacific Northwest and Mountain West subregions of the Western United States. It borders Montana and Wyoming to the east, Nevada and Utah to the south, and Washington and Oregon to the west; the state shares a small portion of the Canada–United States border to the north with the Canadian province of British Columbia. Idaho's state capital and largest city is Boise. With an area of 83,569 square miles (216,440 km2), Idaho is the 14th-largest state by land area. The state has a population of approximately two million people; it ranks as the 13th-least populous and the seventh-least densely populated of the 50 U.S. states.

For thousands of years, and prior to European colonization, Idaho had been inhabited by natives. In the early 19th century, Idaho was considered part of the Oregon Country, an area which was disputed between the U.S. and the British Empire. Idaho officially became a U.S. territory with the signing of the Oregon Treaty of 1846, but a separate Idaho Territory was not organized until 1863, instead being included for periods in Oregon Territory and Washington Territory. The state was eventually admitted to the Union on July 3, 1890, becoming the 43rd state.

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Carl Gustav Jung (/jʊŋ/ YUUNG;[1][2] German: [kaʁl ˈjʊŋ]; 26 July 1875 – 6 June 1961) was a Swiss psychiatrist, psychotherapist, and psychologist who founded the school of analytical psychology.[3][a] He was a prolific author, illustrator, and correspondent, and a complex and controversial character, in certain ways best known through his autobiography Memories, Dreams, Reflections.[6]

Jung's work has been influential in the fields of psychiatry, anthropology, archaeology, literature, philosophy, psychology,[7] and religious studies. He worked as a research scientist at the Burghölzli psychiatric hospital in Zurich, under Eugen Bleuler. Jung established himself as an influential mind, developing a friendship with Sigmund Freud, founder of psychoanalysis, conducting a lengthy correspondence paramount to their joint vision of human psychology. Jung is widely regarded as one of the most influential psychologists in history.[8][9]

Freud saw the younger Jung not only as the heir he had been seeking to take forward his "new science" of psychoanalysis but as a means to legitimize his own work: Freud and other contemporary psychoanalysts were Jews facing rising antisemitism in Europe, and Jung was Christian.[10] Freud secured Jung's appointment as president of Freud's newly founded International Psychoanalytical Association. Jung's research and personal vision, however, made it difficult to follow his older colleague's doctrine, and they parted ways. This division was painful for Jung and resulted in the establishment of Jung's analytical psychology, as a comprehensive system separate from psychoanalysis. Scholar Yosef Hayim Yerushalmi believed that what he claims to be Jung's antisemitic remarks may be a clue to the schism.[11]

Among the central concepts of analytical psychology is individuation—the lifelong psychological process of differentiation of the self out of each individual's conscious and unconscious elements. Jung considered it to be the main task of human development. He created some of the best-known psychological concepts, including synchronicity, archetypal phenomena, the collective unconscious, the psychological complex, and extraversion and introversion. His belief that some alcoholics may recover if they have a 'spiritual or religious experience' indirectly influenced the later founding of Alcoholics Anonymous.[12] Jung was an artist, craftsman, builder, and prolific writer. Many of his works were not published until after his death, and some remain unpublished.[13]

Biography

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Early life

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Childhood

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Carl Gustav Jung[b] was born 26 July 1875 in Kesswil, in the Swiss canton of Thurgau, as the first surviving son of Paul Achilles Jung (1842–1896) and Emilie Preiswerk (1848–1923).[14] His birth was preceded by two stillbirths and that of a son named Paul, born in 1873, who survived only a few days.[15][16]

Paul Jung, Carl's father, was the youngest son of a noted German-Swiss professor of medicine at Basel, Karl Gustav Jung (1794–1864).[17] Paul's hopes of achieving a fortune never materialised, and he did not progress beyond the status of an impoverished rural pastor in the Swiss Reformed Church. Emilie Preiswerk, Carl's mother, had also grown up in a large family whose Swiss roots went back five centuries. Emilie was the youngest child of a distinguished Basel churchman and academic, Samuel Preiswerk (1799–1871), and his second wife. Samuel Preiswerk was an Antistes, the title given to the head of the Reformed clergy in the city, as well as a Hebraist, author, and editor, who taught Paul Jung as his professor of Hebrew at Basel University.[15]: 17–19 

The clergy house in Kleinhüningen, Basel, where Jung grew up.

Jung's father was appointed to a more prosperous parish in Laufen when Jung was six months old. Tensions between father and mother had developed. Jung's mother was an eccentric and depressed woman; she spent considerable time in her bedroom, where she said spirits visited her at night.[18] Though she was normal during the day, Jung recalled that at night his mother became strange and mysterious. He said that one night, he saw a faintly luminous and indefinite figure coming from her room, with a head detached from the neck and floating in the air in front of the body. Jung had a better relationship with his father.[18]

Jung's mother left Laufen for several months of hospitalization near Basel for an unknown physical ailment. His father took Carl to be cared for by Emilie Jung's unmarried sister in Basel, but he was later brought back to his father's residence. Emilie Jung's continuing bouts of absence and depression deeply troubled her son and caused him to associate women with "innate unreliability", whereas "father" meant for him reliability, but also powerlessness.[19] In his memoir, Jung would remark that this parental influence was the "handicap I started off with". Later, these early impressions were revised: "I have trusted men friends and been disappointed by them, and I have mistrusted women and was not disappointed."[20] After three years living in Laufen, Paul Jung requested a transfer. In 1879, he was called to Kleinhüningen, next to Basel, where his family lived in a church parsonage.[21] The relocation brought Emilie Jung closer to contact with her family and lifted her melancholy.[22] When he was 9, Jung's sister Johanna Gertrud (1884–1935) was born. Known in the family as "Trudi", she became a secretary to her brother.[15]: 349 

Memories of childhood

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Jung was a solitary and introverted child. From childhood, he believed that, like his mother,[23] he had two personalities—a modern Swiss citizen and a personality more suited to the 18th century.[24] "Personality Number 1", as he termed it, was a typical schoolboy living in the era of the time. "Personality Number 2" was a dignified, authoritative, and influential man from the past. Though Jung was close to both parents, he was disappointed by his father's academic approach to faith.[25]

Jung as a child, early 1880s

Some childhood memories made lifelong impressions on him. As a boy, he carved a tiny mannequin into the end of the wooden ruler from his pencil case and placed it inside it. He added a stone, which he had painted into upper and lower halves, and hid the case in the attic. Periodically, he would return to the mannequin, often bringing tiny sheets of paper with messages inscribed on them in his own secret language.[26] He later reflected that this ceremonial act brought him a feeling of inner peace and security. Years later, he discovered similarities between his personal experience and the practices associated with totems in Indigenous cultures, such as the collection of soul-stones near Arlesheim or the tjurungas of Australia. He concluded that his intuitive ceremonial act was an unconscious ritual, which he had practiced in a way that was strikingly similar to those in distant locations which he, as a young boy, knew nothing about.[27] His observations about symbols, archetypes, and the collective unconscious were inspired, in part, by these early experiences combined with his later research.[28][29]

At the age of 12, shortly before the end of his first year at the Humanistisches Gymnasium in Basel, Jung was pushed to the ground by another boy so hard he momentarily lost consciousness. (Jung later recognized the incident was indirectly his fault.) A thought then came to him—"Now you won't have to go to school anymore".[30] From then on, whenever he walked to school or began homework, he fainted. He remained home for six months until he overheard his father speaking hurriedly to a visitor about the boy's future ability to support himself. They suspected he had epilepsy. Confronted with his family's poverty, he realized the need for academic excellence. He entered his father's study and began poring over Latin grammar. He fainted three more times but eventually overcame the urge and did not faint again. This event, Jung later recalled, "was when I learned what a neurosis is".[31]

University studies and early career

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The University of Basel, where Jung studied between 1895 and 1900

Initially, Jung had aspirations of becoming a Christian minister. His household had a strong moral sense, and several of his family were clergy. Jung had wanted to study archaeology, but his family could not afford to send him further than the University of Basel, which did not teach it. After studying philosophy in his teens, Jung decided against the path of religious traditionalism and decided to pursue psychiatry and medicine.[32] His interest was captured—it combined the biological and spiritual, exactly what he was searching for.[33] In 1895 Jung began to study medicine at the University of Basel. Barely a year later, his father, Paul, died and left the family nearly destitute. They were helped by relatives who also contributed to Jung's studies.[34] During his student days, he entertained his contemporaries with the family legend that his paternal grandfather was the illegitimate son of Goethe and his German great-grandmother, Sophie Ziegler. In later life, he pulled back from this tale, saying only that Sophie was a friend of Goethe's niece.[35]

It was during this early period when Jung was an assistant at the Anatomical Institute at Basel University, that he took an interest in palaeoanthropology and the revolutionary discoveries of Homo erectus and Neanderthal fossils. These formative experiences contributed to his fascination with the evolutionary past of humanity and his belief that an ancient evolutionary layer in the psyche, represented by early fossil hominins, is still evident in the psychology of modern humans.[36]

In 1900, Jung moved to Zurich and began working at the Burghölzli psychiatric hospital under Eugen Bleuler.[37] Bleuler was already in communication with the Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud. Jung's dissertation, published in 1903, was titled On the Psychology and Pathology of So-Called Occult Phenomena. It was based on the analysis of the supposed mediumship of Jung's cousin Hélène Preiswerk, under the influence of Freud's contemporary Théodore Flournoy.[38] Jung studied with Pierre Janet in Paris in 1902[39] and later equated his view of the complex with Janet's idée fixe subconsciente.[40] In 1905, Jung was appointed as a permanent 'senior' doctor at the hospital and became a lecturer Privatdozent in the medical faculty of Zurich University.[41] In 1904, he published with Franz Riklin their Diagnostic Association Studies, of which Freud obtained a copy.[42][43] In 1909, Jung left the psychiatric hospital and began a private practice in his home in Küsnacht.[44]

Eventually, a close friendship and strong professional association developed between the elder Freud and Jung, which left a sizeable correspondence. In late summer 1909, the two sailed for the U.S., where Freud was the featured lecturer at the twentieth-anniversary celebration of the founding of Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts, the Vicennial Conference on Psychology and Pedagogy, September 7–11. Jung spoke as well and received an honorary degree.[45]

It was during this trip that Jung first began separating psychologically from Freud, his mentor, which occurred after intense communications around their individual dreams. It was during this visit that Jung was introduced to the elder philosopher and psychologist William James, known as the "Father of American psychology," whose ideas Jung would incorporate into his own work.[46] Jung connected with James around their mutual interests in mysticism, spiritualism and psychical phenomena.[47] James wrote to a friend after the conference stating Jung "left a favorable impression," while "his views of Freud were mixed."[48] James died about eleven months later.

The ideas of both Jung and James, on topics including hopelessness, self-surrender, and spiritual experiences, were influential in the development and founding of the international altruistic, self-help movement Alcoholics Anonymous on June 10, 1935, in Akron, Ohio, a quarter of a century after James' death and in Jung's sixtieth year.

For six years, Jung and Freud cooperated in their work. In 1912, however, Jung published Psychology of the Unconscious, which manifested the developing theoretical divergence between the two. Consequently, their personal and professional relationship fractured—each stating the other could not admit he could be wrong. After the culminating break in 1913, Jung went through a difficult and pivotal psychological transformation, exacerbated by the outbreak of the First World War. Henri Ellenberger called Jung's intense experience a "creative illness" and compared it favorably to Freud's own period of what he called neurasthenia and hysteria.[49]: 173 

Marriage

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Emma Jung in 1911. She assisted her husband in his early research before becoming a psychoanalyst and author.

In 1903, Jung married Emma Rauschenbach (1882–1955), seven years his junior and the elder daughter of a wealthy industrialist in eastern Switzerland, Johannes Rauschenbach-Schenck.[50] Rauschenbach was the owner, among other concerns, of IWC Schaffhausen—the International Watch Company, manufacturer of luxury time-pieces. Upon his death in 1905, his two daughters and their husbands became owners of the business. Jung's brother-in-law—Ernst Homberger—became the principal proprietor, but the Jungs remained shareholders in a thriving business that ensured the family's financial security for decades.[51] Emma Jung, whose education had been limited, showed considerable ability and interest in her husband's research and threw herself into studies and acted as his assistant at Burghölzli. She eventually became a noted psychoanalyst in her own right. The marriage lasted until Emma died in 1955.[52] They had five children:

• Agathe Niehus, born on December 28, 1904

• Gret Baumann, born on February 8, 1906

• Franz Jung-Merker, born on November 28, 1908

• Marianne Niehus, born on September 20, 1910

• Helene Hoerni, born on March 18, 1914

None of the children continued their father's career. The daughters, Agathe and Marianne, assisted in publishing work.[53]

During his marriage, Jung engaged in at least one extramarital relationship: his affair with his patient and, later, fellow psychoanalyst Sabina Spielrein.[54][55][56] A continuing affair with Toni Wolff is also alleged.[57][58]

Relationship with Freud

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See also: Psychoanalysis

Meeting and collaboration

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Group photo 1909 in front of Clark University. Front row, Sigmund Freud, G. Stanley Hall, Carl Jung. Back row, Abraham Brill, Ernest Jones, Sándor Ferenczi.

Jung and Freud influenced each other during the intellectually formative years of Jung's life. Jung became interested in psychiatry as a student by reading Psychopathia Sexualis by Richard von Krafft-Ebing. In 1900, Jung completed his degree and started work as an intern (voluntary doctor) under the psychiatrist Eugen Bleuler at Burghölzli Hospital.[59] It was Bleuler who introduced him to the writings of Freud by asking him to write a review of The Interpretation of Dreams (1899). In the early 1900s psychology as a science was still in its early stages, but Jung became a qualified proponent of Freud's new "psycho-analysis". Freud needed collaborators and pupils to validate and spread his ideas. Burghölzli was a renowned psychiatric clinic in Zurich, and Jung's research had already gained him international recognition. Jung sent Freud a copy of his Studies in Word Association in 1906.[60] The same year, he published Diagnostic Association Studies, a copy of which he later sent to Freud—who had already purchased a copy.[43] Preceded by a lively correspondence, Jung met Freud for the first time in Vienna on 3 March 1907.[61] Jung recalled the discussion between himself and Freud as interminable and unceasing for 13 hours.[62] Six months later, the then 50-year-old Freud sent a collection of his latest published essays to Jung in Zurich. This began an intense correspondence and collaboration that lasted six years.[63] In 1908, Jung became an editor of the newly founded Yearbook for Psychoanalytical and Psychopathological Research.

In 1909, Jung traveled with Freud and Hungarian psychoanalyst Sándor Ferenczi to the United States; in September, they took part in a conference at Clark University in Worcester, Massachusetts. The conference at Clark University was planned by the psychologist G. Stanley Hall and included 27 distinguished psychiatrists, neurologists, and psychologists. It represented a watershed in the acceptance of psychoanalysis in North America. This forged welcome links between Jung and influential Americans.[64] Jung returned to the United States the next year for a brief visit.

In 1910, Freud proposed Jung, "his adopted eldest son, his crown prince, and successor," for the position of lifetime President of the newly formed International Psychoanalytical Association. However, after forceful objections from his Viennese colleagues, it was agreed Jung would be elected to serve a two-year term of office.[65]

Divergence and break

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Jung outside Burghölzli in 1910

While Jung worked on his Psychology of the Unconscious: a study of the transformations and symbolisms of the libido, tensions manifested between him and Freud because of various disagreements, including those concerning the nature of libido.[66] Jung de-emphasized the importance of sexual development and focused on the collective unconscious: the part of the unconscious that contains memories and ideas that Jung believed were inherited from ancestors. While he did think that the libido was an important source of personal growth, unlike Freud, Jung did not think that the libido alone was responsible for the formation of the core personality.[67]

In 1912, these tensions came to a peak because Jung felt severely slighted after Freud visited his colleague Ludwig Binswanger in Kreuzlingen without paying him a visit in nearby Zurich, an incident Jung referred to as "the Kreuzlingen gesture". Shortly thereafter, Jung again traveled to the US and gave the Fordham University lectures, a six-week series, which were published later in the year as Psychology of the Unconscious, subsequently republished as Symbols of Transformation. While they contain remarks on Jung's dissenting view on the libido, they represent largely a "psychoanalytical Jung" and not the theory of analytical psychology, for which he became famous in the following decades. Nonetheless, it was their publication which, Jung declared, "cost me my friendship with Freud".[68]

Another disagreement with Freud stemmed from their differing concepts of the unconscious.[69] Jung saw Freud's theory of the unconscious as incomplete, unnecessarily negative, and inelastic. According to Jung, Freud conceived the unconscious solely as a repository of repressed emotions and desires.[70] Jung's observations overlap to an extent with Freud's model of the unconscious, what Jung called the "personal unconscious", but his hypothesis is more about a process than a static model, and he also proposed the existence of a second, overarching form of the unconscious beyond the personal, that he named the psychoid—a term borrowed from neo-vitalist philosopher and embryologist Hans Driesch (1867–1941)—but with a somewhat altered meaning.[71] The collective unconscious is not so much a 'geographical location', but a deduction from the alleged ubiquity of archetypes over space and time.[clarification needed]

In November 1912, Jung and Freud met in Munich for a meeting among prominent colleagues to discuss psychoanalytical journals.[72] At a talk about a new psychoanalytic essay on Amenhotep IV, Jung expressed his views on how it related to actual conflicts in the psychoanalytic movement. While Jung spoke, Freud suddenly fainted, and Jung carried him to a couch.[73]

Jung and Freud personally met for the last time in September 1913 at the Fourth International Psychoanalytical Congress in Munich. Jung gave a talk on psychological types, the introvert and extraverted types, in analytical psychology.

Midlife isolation

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It was the publication of Jung's book The Psychology of the Unconscious in 1912 that led to the final break with Freud. The letters they exchanged show Freud's refusal to consider Jung's ideas. This rejection caused what Jung described in his posthumously published autobiography, Memories, Dreams, Reflections (1962) as a "resounding censure". Everyone he knew dropped away from him except two of his colleagues. After the Munich congress, he was on the verge of a suicidal psychosis that precipitated his writing of his Red Book, his seven-volume personal diaries that were only published partially and posthumously in 2009. Eleven years later, in 2020, they were published as his Black Books. Jung described his 1912 book as "an attempt, only partially successful, to create a wider setting for medical psychology and to bring the whole of the psychic phenomena within its purview". The book was later revised and retitled Symbols of Transformation in 1952.[74]

London 1913–1914

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Jung spoke at meetings of the Psycho-Medical Society in London in 1913 and 1914. His travels were soon interrupted by the war, but his ideas continued to receive attention in England primarily through the efforts of Constance Long, who translated and published the first English volume of his collected writings.[75][76]

The Black Books and The Red Book

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Main articles: The Red Book (Jung) and Black Books (Jung)

The Red Book resting on Jung's desk

In 1913, at the age of 38, Jung experienced a horrible "confrontation with the unconscious". He saw visions and heard voices. He worried at times that he was "menaced by a psychosis" or was "doing a schizophrenia". He decided that it was a valuable experience and, in private, he induced hallucinations or, in his words, a process of "active imagination". He recorded everything he experienced in small journals, which Jung referred to in the singular as his Black Book,[77] considering it a "single integral whole", even though some of these original journals have a brown cover.[77] The material Jung wrote was subjected to several edits, hand-written and typed, including another, "second layer" of text, his continual psychological interpretations during the process of editing.[78][79] Around 1915, Jung commissioned a large red leather-bound book,[80][81] and began to transcribe his notes and paint, working intermittently for sixteen years.[82]

Jung left no posthumous instructions about the final disposition of what he called the Liber Novus or Red Book. Sonu Shamdasani, a historian of psychology from London, tried for three years to persuade Jung's resistant heirs to have it published. Ulrich Hoerni, Jung's grandson who manages the Jung archives, decided to publish it when the necessary additional funds were raised through the Philemon Foundation.[82] Up to September 2008, fewer than about two dozen people had ever seen it.

In 2007, two technicians for DigitalFusion, working with New York City publishers W. W. Norton & Company, scanned the manuscript with a 10,200-pixel scanner. It was published on 7 October 2009 in German, with a "separate English translation along with Shamdasani's introduction and footnotes" at the back of the book. According to Sara Corbett, reviewing the text for The New York Times, "The book is bombastic, baroque and like so much else about Carl Jung, a willful oddity, synched with an antediluvian and mystical reality."[82]

The Rubin Museum of Art in New York City displayed Jung's Red Book leather folio, as well as some of his original "Black Book" journals, from 7 October 2009 to 15 February 2010.[83] According to them, "During the period in which he worked on this book Jung developed his principal theories of archetypes, collective unconscious, and the process of individuation." Two-thirds of the pages bear Jung's illuminations and illustrations to the text.[83]

Wartime army service

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During World War I, Jung was drafted as an army doctor and soon made commandant of an internment camp for British officers and soldiers. The Swiss were neutral and obliged to intern personnel from either side of the conflict, who crossed their frontier to evade capture. Jung worked to improve the conditions of soldiers stranded in Switzerland and encouraged them to attend university courses.[84][85]

Travels

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Jung emerged from his period of isolation in the late nineteen-tens with the publication of several journal articles, followed in 1921 with Psychological Types, one of his most influential books. There followed a decade of active publication, interspersed with overseas travels.

England (1920, 1923, 1925, 1935, 1938, 1946)

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Constance Long arranged for Jung to deliver a seminar in Cornwall in 1920. Another seminar was held in 1923, this one organized by Jung's British protégé Helton Godwin Baynes (known as "Peter") (1882–1943), and another in 1925.[86]

Beatrice Ensor and Jung in Montreux, Switzerland, 1923, for the Second International New Education Fellowship Conference

In 1935, at the invitation of his close British friends and colleagues, H. G. Baynes, E. A. Bennet and Hugh Crichton-Miller, Jung gave a series of lectures at the Tavistock Clinic in London, later published as part of the Collected Works.[87]

In 1938, Jung was awarded an honorary degree by the University of Oxford.[88] At the tenth International Medical Congress for Psychotherapy held at Oxford from 29 July to 2 August 1938, Jung gave the presidential address, followed by a visit to Cheshire to stay with the Bailey family at Lawton Mere.[89]

In 1946, Jung agreed to become the first Honorary President of the newly formed Society of Analytical Psychology in London, having previously approved its training programme devised by Michael Fordham.[90]

United States 1909–1912, 1924–1925, & 1936–1937

[edit]

During the period of Jung's collaboration with Freud, both visited the US in 1909 to lecture at Clark University, Worcester, Massachusetts,[64] where both were awarded honorary degrees. In 1912, Jung gave a series of lectures at Fordham University, New York, which were published later in the year as Psychology of the Unconscious.[68] Jung made a more extensive trip westward in the winter of 1924–5, financed and organized by Fowler McCormick and George Porter. Of particular value to Jung was a visit with Chief Mountain Lake of the Taos Pueblo near Taos, New Mexico.[86] Jung made another trip to America in 1936, receiving an honorary degree at Harvard[91] and giving lectures in New York and New England for his growing group of American followers. He returned in 1937 to deliver the Terry Lectures at Yale University, later published as Psychology and Religion.[92]

East Africa

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In October 1925, Jung embarked on his most ambitious expedition, the "Bugishu Psychological Expedition" to East Africa. He was accompanied by his English friend, "Peter" Baynes, and an American associate, George Beckwith. On the voyage to Africa, they became acquainted with an English woman named Ruth Bailey, who joined their safari a few weeks later. The group traveled through Kenya and Uganda to the slopes of Mount Elgon, where Jung hoped to increase his understanding of "primitive psychology" through conversations with the culturally isolated residents of that area. Later, he concluded that the major insights he had gleaned had to do with himself and the European psychology in which he had been raised.[93][94] One of Jung's most famous proposed constructs is kinship libido. Jung defined this as an instinctive feeling of belonging to a particular group or family and believed it was vital to the human experience and used this as an endogamous aspect of the libido and what lies amongst the family. This is similar to a Bantu term called Ubuntu that emphasizes humanity and almost the same meaning as kinship libido, which is, "I am because you are."[95]

India

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Jung in about 1935

In December 1937, Jung left Zurich again for an extensive tour of India with Fowler McCormick. In India, he felt himself "under the direct influence of a foreign culture" for the first time. In Africa, his conversations had been strictly limited by the language barrier, but he could converse extensively in India. Hindu philosophy became an important element in his understanding of the role of symbolism and the life of the unconscious, though he avoided a meeting with Ramana Maharshi. He described Ramana as being absorbed in "the self". During these travels, he visited the Vedagiriswarar Temple, where he had a conversation with a local expert about the symbols and sculptures on the gopuram of this temple. He later wrote about this conversation[96] in his book Aion.[97] Jung became seriously ill on this trip and endured two weeks of delirium in a Calcutta hospital. After 1938, his travels were confined to Europe.[98]

Later life and death

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Jung in a 1955 interview

Jung became a full professor of medical psychology at the University of Basel in 1943 but resigned after a heart attack the next year to lead a more private life. In 1945, he began corresponding with an English Roman Catholic priest, Father Victor White, who became a close friend, regularly visiting the Jungs at the Bollingen estate.[1] Jung became ill again in 1952.[99]

Jung continued to publish books until the end of his life, including Flying Saucers: A Modern Myth of Things Seen in the Skies (1959), which analyzed the archetypal meaning and possible psychological significance of the reported observations of UFOs.[100] In 1961, he wrote his last work, a contribution to Man and His Symbols entitled "Approaching the Unconscious" (published posthumously in 1964).[99] Jung died on 6 June 1961 at Küsnacht after a short illness.[49]: 450 [101] He had been beset by circulatory diseases.[102]

Awards

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Among his principal distinctions are honorary doctorates from:

• Clark University 1909

• Fordham University 1912

• Harvard University 1936

• University of Allahabad 1937

• University of Benares 1937

• University of Calcutta 1938

• University of Oxford 1938

• University of Geneva 1945

• Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich 1955 on his 80th birthday

In addition, he was:

• given a Literature prize from the city of Zurich, 1932

• made Titular Professor of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Zurich, ETH 1935

• appointed Honorary Member of the Royal Society of Medicine 1939

• given a Festschrift at Eranos 1945

• appointed President of the Society of Analytical Psychology, London, 1946

• given a Festschrift by students and friends 1955

• named Honorary citizen of Kűsnacht 1960, on his 85th birthday.[103]

Thought

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Jung's family c. 1895: l to r. father Paul, sister Gertrud, mother Emilie and Carl

Jung's thought derived from the classical education he received at school and from early family influences, which on the maternal side were a combination of Reformed Protestant academic theology with an interest in occult phenomena. On his father's side was a dedication to academic discipline emanating from his grandfather, the physician, scientist, and first Basel Professor of Medicine, Karl Gustav Jung, a one-time student activist and convert from Catholicism to Swiss Reformed Protestantism. Family lore suggested there was at least a social connection to the German polymath, Johann Wolfgang Goethe, through the latter's niece, Lotte Kestner, known as "Lottchen" who was a frequent visitor in Jung senior's household.[104]

Carl Jung, the practicing clinician, writer, and founder of analytical psychology, had, through his marriage, the economic security to pursue interests in other intellectual topics of the moment. His early celebrity as a research scientist through the Word Association Test led to the start of prolific correspondence and worldwide travel. It opened academic as well as social avenues, supported by his explorations into anthropology, quantum physics, vitalism, Eastern and Western philosophy. He delved into epistemology, alchemy, astrology, and sociology, as well as literature and the arts. Jung's interest in philosophy and spiritual subjects led many to label him a mystic, although he preferred to be seen as a man of science. Jung, unlike Freud, was deeply knowledgeable about philosophical concepts and sought links between epistemology and emergent theories of psychology.[105][106]

Key concepts

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C. G. Jung Institute, Küsnacht, Switzerland

Within the field of analytical psychology, a brief survey of major concepts developed by Jung include (alphabetical):[107]

• Anima and animus—(archetype) the contrasexual aspect of a person's psyche. In a woman's psyche, her inner personal masculine is conceived as a complex and an archetypal image; in a man's psyche, his inner personal feminine is conceived both as a complex and an archetypal image.

• Archetype—a concept "borrowed" from anthropology to denote supposedly universal and recurring mental images or themes. Jung's descriptions of archetypes varied over time.

• Archetypal images—universal symbols that mediate opposites in the psyche, often found in religious art, mythology, and fairy tales across cultures.

• Collective unconscious—aspects of unconsciousness experienced by all people in different cultures.

• Complex—the repressed organisation of images and experiences that governs perception and behaviour.

• Extraversion and introversion—personality traits of degrees of openness or reserve contributing to psychological type.[108]

• Individuation—the process of fulfilment of each individual "which negates neither the conscious or unconscious position but does justice to them both".[109]

• Interpersonal relationship—the way people relate to others is a reflection of the way they relate to their own selves. This may also be extended to relations with the natural environment.

• Numinous—a healing, transformative or destructive spiritual power. Also, an invisible power inherent in an object. Jung develops the concept from the work of Rudolf Otto, who based it on the Latin numen.

• Persona—element of the personality that arises "for reasons of adaptation or personal convenience"—the "masks" one puts on in various situations.[110]

• Psychological types—a framework for consciously orienting psychotherapists to patients by raising particular modes of personality to consciousness and differentiation between analyst and patient.

• Shadow—(archetype) the repressed, therefore unknown, aspects of the personality, including those often considered to be negative.

• Self—(archetype) the central overarching concept governing the individuation process, as symbolised by mandalas, the union of male and female, totality, and unity. Jung viewed it as the psyche's central archetype.

• Synchronicity—an acausal principle as a basis for the apparently random concurrence of phenomena.[111]

Collective unconscious

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Main article: Collective unconscious

Since the establishment of psychoanalytic theory, the notion and meaning of individuals having a personal unconscious has gradually come to be commonly accepted. This was popularised by both Freud and Jung. Whereas an individual's personal unconscious is made up of thoughts and emotions that have, at some time, been experienced or held in mind but which have been repressed or forgotten, in contrast, the collective unconscious is neither acquired by activities within an individual's life nor a container of things that are thoughts, memories or ideas which are capable of being conscious during one's life. The contents of it were never naturally "known" through physical or cognitive experience and then forgotten.

The collective unconscious consists of universal heritable elements common to all humans, distinct from other species.[112] However, this does not necessarily imply a genetic cause. It encapsulates fields of evolutionary biology, history of civilization, ethnology, brain and nervous system development, and general psychological development.[113] Considering its composition in practical physiological and psychological terms, "it consists of pre-existent forms, the archetypes, which can only become conscious secondarily and which give definite form to certain psychic contents."[113] Jung writes about causal factors in personal psychology as stemming from, influenced by an abstraction of the impersonal physical layer, the common and universal physiology among all humans.[114] Jung considers that science would hardly deny the existence and basic nature of "instincts", existing as a whole set of motivating urges. The collective unconscious acts as the frame where science can distinguish individual motivating urges, thought to be universal across all individuals of the human species, while instincts are present in all species. Jung contends, "The hypothesis of the collective unconscious is, therefore, no more daring than to assume there are instincts."[113]

Archetype

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Main article: Jungian archetypes

Common archetypal motifs: Devourer, Great/Benevolent Mother, Wise Old Man, Hero/Self

The archetype is a concept "borrowed" from anthropology to denote a process of nature. Jung's definitions of archetypes varied over time and have been the subject of debate regarding their usefulness. Archetypal images, also referred to as motifs in mythology,[c] are universal symbols that can mediate opposites in the psyche, are often found in religious art, mythology and fairy tales across cultures. Jung saw archetypes as pre-configurations in nature that give rise to repeating, understandable, describable experiences. In addition, the concept considers the passage of time and patterns resulting from transformation.[115] Archetypes are said to exist independently of any current event or its effect. They are said to exert influence both across all domains of experience and throughout the stages of each individual's unique development. Being in part based on heritable physiology, they are thought to have "existed" since humans became a differentiated species. They have been deduced through the development of storytelling over tens of thousands of years, indicating repeating patterns of individual and group experience, behaviors, and effects across the planet, apparently displaying common themes.[113]

The concept did not originate with Jung but with Plato, who first conceived of primordial patterns. Later contributions came from Adolf Bastian and Hermann Usener, among others.[116] In the first half of the twentieth century, it proved impossible to objectively isolate and categorize the notion of an archetype within a materialist frame. According to Jung, there are "as many archetypes as there are typical situations in life",[117] and he asserted that they have a dynamic mutual influence on one another. Their alleged presence could be extracted from thousand-year-old narratives, from comparative religion and mythology.[118] Jung elaborated on many archetypes in "The Archetypes and the Collective Unconscious" and in "Aion: Researches into the Phenomenology of the Self". Examples of archetypes might be the shadow, the hero, the self, anima, animus, mother, father, child, and trickster.

Shadow

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See also: shadow (psychology)

The shadow exists as part of the unconscious mind and is composed of the traits individuals instinctively or consciously resist identifying as their own and would rather ignore, typically repressed ideas, weaknesses, desires, instincts, and shortcomings. Much of the shadow comes as a result of an individual's adaptation to cultural norms and expectations.[110] Thus, this archetype not only consists of all the things deemed unacceptable by society but also those things that are not aligned with one's own personal morals and values.

Jung argues that the shadow plays a distinctive role in balancing one's overall psyche, the counter-balancing to consciousness—"where there is light, there must also be shadow". Without a well-developed shadow (often "shadow work", "integrating one's shadow"), an individual can become shallow and extremely preoccupied with the opinions of others; that is, a walking persona.[110] Not wanting to look at their shadows directly, Jung argues, often results in psychological projection. Individuals project imagined attitudes onto others without awareness. The qualities an individual may hate (or love) in another may manifest in those who do not see the external, material truth.[110] In order to truly grow as an individual, Jung believed that both the persona and shadow should be balanced.[110]

The shadow can often appear as a dark, wild, exotic figure in dreams or visions.[119]

Extraversion and introversion

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Main article: Extraversion and introversion

See also: Apollonian and Dionysian

Jung was one of the first people to define introversion and extraversion in a psychological context. In Jung's Psychological Types, he theorizes that each person falls into one of two categories: the introvert or the extravert. Jung compares these two psychological types to ancient archetypes, Apollo and Dionysus. The introvert is likened to Apollo, who shines a light on understanding. The introvert is focused on the internal world of reflection, dreaming, and vision. Thoughtful and insightful, the introvert can sometimes be uninterested in joining the activities of others. The extravert is associated with Dionysus, interested in joining the activities of the world. The extravert is focused on the outside world of objects, sensory perception, and action. Energetic and lively, the extravert may lose their sense of self in the intoxication of Dionysian pursuits.[120] Jungian introversion and extraversion is quite different from the modern idea of introversion and extraversion.[121] Modern theories often stay true to behaviourist means of describing such a trait (sociability, talkativeness, assertiveness, etc.), whereas Jungian introversion and extraversion are expressed as a perspective: introverts interpret the world subjectively, whereas extraverts interpret the world objectively.[122]

Persona

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