Transforming the Twentieth Century: Technical Innovations and Their Consequences

an incomplete and imperfect story of amazing technical transformations that is told from a variety of perspectives in order to understand better the complexities of the fascinating process, its stunning accomplishments, and its unforeseen (and often unforeseeable) failures.

oxygenation of aquacultural ponds (now the fastest expanding method of producing animal protein)

blades. In addition, these large (up to 18.2 kg) single-crystal alloy blades need a ceramic coating in order to prevent their melting and provide resistance to oxidation and corrosion.

the gas turbine. In less than two decades after its introduction, this machine transformed many facets of modern societies: without it there would be neither affordable long-distance flights nor inexpensive long-distance deliveries of natural gas.

BFs are reliable producers of large volumes of pig iron and are supported by elaborate supply systems of iron ore mines, limestone or dolomite quarries, pelletizing or sintering plants, coal mines, coking batteries, coal trains, ore and coal carriers, and harbors. Such proven, high-volume performers and such expensive infrastructures have considera

Many nuclear reactors achieved impressive annual load factors of more than 95% (compared to fossil-fueled units whose load factors generally do not surpass 70%),

the energy intensity of the world economic output was more than halved during the 20th century

BFs are prodigious (Peacey and Davenport 1979; Sugawara et al. 1986). A furnace producing 10,000 t of metal a day will need more than 4.5 Mt of hot blast air a year, and it has to be supplied with about 1.6 t of pelletized ore, 400 kg of coke, 100 kg of injected coal (or 60 kg of fuel oil), and 200 kg of limestone for every tonne of iron. These cha

Early electricity generation was very inefficient and hence expensive. In 1900 the waste of fuel was astonishingly high, as the average U.S. heat rate of 91.25 MJ/kWh converted less than 4% of coal’s chemical energy to electricity. The rate more than tripled by 1925 to nearly 14% and then almost doubled by 1950 to roughly 24% (Schurr and Netschert