instead of demanding convincing results, experiments start with asking people to make bets. “Look, I know we disagree on this but will you gamble with me on it?”20 The goal in a learning culture is to welcome these kinds of experiments, to make rethinking so familiar that it becomes routine.

Her simple denial overlooks the complex reality that racism is a function of our actions, not merely our intentions.

The notion of a spirited debate captures something important about how and why good fights happen. If you watch Brad argue with his colleagues—or the pirates fight with one another—you can quickly see that the tension is intellectual, not emotional. The tone is vigorous and feisty rather than combative or aggressive. They don’t disagree just for

psychologists find that one of the hallmarks of an open mind is responding to confusion with curiosity and interest.30 One student put it eloquently: “I need time for my confusion.”31 Confusion can be a cue that there’s new territory to be explored or a fresh puzzle to be solved.32

What’s surprising about these results is that we typically celebrate great entrepreneurs and leaders for being strong-minded and clear-sighted. They’re supposed to be paragons of conviction: decisive and certain. Yet evidence reveals that when business executives compete in tournaments to price products,19 the best strategists are actually slow and

That’s what good scientists do: instead of drawing conclusions about people based on minimal clues, they test their hypotheses by striking up conversations.

we run experiments to test hypotheses and discover knowledge.

passions are often developed, not discovered.

psychologists find that one of the hallmarks of an open mind is responding to confusion with curiosity and interest.