always cast in a questioning, argumentative, and non-dogmatic style.

Aristotle insists that habituation, not teaching, is the route to moral virtue (II. 1). We must practise doing good actions, not just read about virtue. Though

On the practical side (dealing with matters that can be otherwise, hence are suitable for deliberation) he draws an important distinction between ‘making’—the province of art (i.e. expertise in producing some outcome)—and ‘doing’, where no outcome beyond the doing itself is aimed at (VI.5). Practical wisdom (phronēsis) is the intellectual virtue co

Since scientific knowledge requires proof, and any proof has to start from unproven assumptions, intuitive reason (nous) is needed as the grasp of these starting points for the deductive reasoning he takes scientific knowledge to require.

There is a way human beings ought to be and ought to live. This is not because god created them for a purpose—something Aristotle did not hold—but simply because they are a certain kind of living being, and every living species has its own work or function. Human beings have many capacities—Aristotle calls them capacities of soul, but by soul he ju

The highest good must be wanted for itself; it must consist in activity (rather than some state a person is in) and must be self-sufficient and lacking in nothing.

Aretē, usually translated virtue, means excellence of any kind, and can be applied to pruning-hooks as well as to persons.

some have suggested that eudaimonia should instead be translated ‘flourishing’ or ‘fulfilment’. Clearly by ‘happiness’ Aristotle is not speaking of any kind of mental state, still less of one where subjects’ self-reports

All three agree that the highest good for human beings is happiness, and that a rational choice of life will be one directed to one’s own happiness. Only a life in which one cultivates the traditional virtues (justice, temperance, courage, and practical wisdom) will be a happy life. Plato’s