The History of Philosophy

Aristotle offers some helpful terminology. Sophia (roughly translated as “theoretical knowledge”), he says, grasps universal truths, whereas phronesis (roughly, “good practical judgment”) is required to apply these truths properly to particular instances.

According to Epictetus, the primary concern of philosophy should be the art of living: Just as wood is the medium of the carpenter and bronze is the medium of the sculptor, your life is the medium on which you practice the art of living.

One school of interpretation finds Aristotle firmly advocating an inclusive account of happiness in 1.7, such that the best life will include the best combination of those goods we desire for themselves. Only thus can it ‘not be made more desirable by the addition’ of other goods. But, if Aristotle favoured such an inclusive account in Book I, this

What “remains,” Aristotle concludes, is “a sort of active (praktike) life of that which possesses reason (logos)”

On the practical side (dealing with matters that can be otherwise, hence are suitable for deliberation) he draws an important distinction between ‘making’—the province of art (i.e. expertise in producing some outcome)—and ‘doing’, where no outcome beyond the doing itself is aimed at (VI.5). Practical wisdom (phronēsis) is the intellectual virtue co

Aristotle also felt strongly that virtue requires action; mere noble intentions are not enough. We are social creatures; a solitary life is not worth living. Our personal happiness, then, was linked to the welfare of the community. With a population consisting of individuals engaged with thinking and discriminating and working out for themselves th