One effect psychologists study is the availability heuristic, which refers to how easy it is to draw up an example of what you believe.[xxiv]

Pitfall #5: Getting causation backwards

In other words, she has a sense of the average, or mean, amount of time she needs for each task.

Put simply, p-values tell us how likely it is that something happened for a reason, not just because of random chance.

In your everyday life, you don’t need to know the formula or even have a solid mathematical understanding of the theorem to use its basic principle.

Averages give us some information but not all the information we might need to understand a situation.

Clusters are exactly what they sound like: where notable groups of data fall.

clean. Cleaning data is exactly what it sounds like: looking through it to make sure it doesn't have any errors or duplicates, that it was collected accurately, and that it's in the right format for your computer (or you) to analyze.[xvi]

Sample: a representative subset of a population. Samples are used in studies because they are much more manageable than entire populations.