Sublime

Pompey was a radical and ambitious rule breaker who had already flouted most of the conventions of Roman politics that traditionalists were increasingly trying to insist on. The son of a ‘new man’, he had risen to military prominence by exploiting the disruption of the 80s BCE. When still in his twenties, he had put together three legions from amon

CHAPTER SEVEN · FROM EMPIRE TO EMPERORS Cicero versus Verres

Leaving Gaul in early 49 BCE, Caesar famously crossed the river Rubicon, which formed the boundary of Italy, and marched towards Rome. Forty years had made a big difference. When Sulla turned his army on the city, all but one of his senior officers had refused to follow him. When Caesar did the same, all but one stayed with him.

And there was no end to his rash promises of debt relief (one of the most despicable forms of radicalism in the eyes of the Roman landed classes) or to his bold threats to take out the leading politicians and to put the whole city to flames.

The Romans versus Alexander the Great

There may also have been some higher principles driving the plot and more widespread support for it among soldiers and senators. Or so the many stories told of Gaius’ villainies suggest. His incest with his sisters and his mad plans to make his horse a consul have become notorious.

Caesar also writes of the Druid belief in reincarnation, and their proficiency in astronomy, biology and theology.

In broad terms, Augustus bought senatorial acquiescence and senatorial service at the price of granting them honours, respect and in some cases new powers.

CHAPTER 9 · THE TRANSFORMATIONS OF AUGUSTUS Caesar’s heir