Aristotle argued that justice based on fair treatment of the individual leads to a fair society, whereas Plato, looking at the big picture, thought fairness to society was of primary importance and individual cases were judged in order to achieve that end.

“The common characteristic of all complex systems is that they display organization without any external organizing principle being applied.”30 That means no head honcho, no homunculus.

the Baldwin effect is the evolution of the ability to respond optimally to a particular environment.

He realized that humans have the innate ability to understand that others have minds with different desires, intentions, beliefs, and mental states, and the ability to form theories, with some degree of accuracy, about what those desires, intentions, beliefs, and mental states are. He called this ability theory of mind (TOM)

“Moral systems are interlocking sets of values, virtues, norms, practices, identities, institutions, technologies, and evolved psychological mechanisms that work together to suppress or regulate selfishness and make social life possible.”60

inhibition. It seems that sociocognitive evolution has occurred in the experimental foxes as a correlated by-product of selection on systems mediating fear and aggression.

Young children by age three begin to inhibit some of their naturally altruistic behavior. They become more discriminating about whom they help. They share more often with others who have shared with them in the past.11 Chimps do the same thing,12 exhibiting at least some of the characteristics of reciprocal altruism. Social norms and rules also

The troublemakers, although still very much of a problem, are actually few and far between, perhaps five percent of the population.

After thirty years of clever research looking for TOM in other animals, evidence for it is lacking. It appears to be present to a limited degree in chimpanzees,35 but that is it so far.