Choice or Chance

Learning to see the connection between what we do and its consequences is called contingent reinforcement and is a crucial process for becoming aware of how much actual Internal control we have and how often and to what extent we can expect our behavior to produce particular outcomes.

we don't see the link between our actions and our fitness levels or the subsequent greater likelihood of negative physical consequences including obesity, high blood pressure, and illness. We are paying an enormous price for our higher Externality in the form of poorer health, lower quality of life, and the development of life-threatening diseases.

Because of the different ways they have learned to anticipate what to expect in the future, Internals and Externals can experience the same events but remain unaware of whether the outcomes were contingent on their actions.

Internals showed they were willing to invest more in their fitness behaviors than Externals by being healthier eaters and more enthusiastic exercisers.

a lack of strong relationships increased the risk of premature death by 50 percent. That's equivalent to smoking fifteen cigarettes a day.7 It appears one of the best ways to be physically healthy is to have plenty of good relationships.

Internals prefer less structured activities. They like to make their own structure and decide on their own how to spend their time within that framework. If given a chance, they would probably opt for free time whenever possible. The best way to teach Internals is to inform them of a goal, point them to the materials needed to accomplish that goal,

applying the Balance Rule of Coping to find the correct balance between personal and situational control is at the center of how well we recover from illness, surgery, and injury.

we found fathers’ (but not mothers’) prenatal Externality was related to their sons’ negative adjustment, especially hyperactivity, as measured by teacher ratings.

Perhaps the most common refrain heard from the students was that they felt they could take some risks in meeting people from other cultures because they felt “secure and supported” by the study-abroad program; a refrain that echoes the description offered by antecedent researchers for the development of Internality.