As the Athenian historian and general Thucydides concluded twenty-five hundred years ago, conflict is driven by fear and honor as well as interest.

Third, we would insist on the presentation of multiple options to the president, as a means of providing best advice from across all departments and agencies of government.

Deterrence by denial requires a combination of offensive and defensive capabilities, improved resilience of systems, and a high degree of cooperation across government, businesses, and academia.

For me, history came to life when it was applied to contemporary challenges and circumstances.

The lesson is that in war and in competitions short of war, America does not control the future course of events, and strategies must not only be sustained over time, but also adapt continuously to retain the initiative.

Because tech companies prioritize holding users’ attention to expose them to more ads, the companies’ algorithms do not prioritize truth or accuracy, but instead help disseminate fake news and disinformation. The algorithms that determine the presentation of content in social media encourage further polarization and extreme views.

Our job was to provide the president with options and integrated strategies that combined elements of national power with efforts of like-minded partners to make progress toward clearly defined goals. The work, however, should begin with identifying challenges and understanding them on their own terms and from the perspective of “the other.”

China has targeted EU countries and other U.S. allies such as Israel for control of ports. And many of these ports under Chinese control, such as Antwerp, Trieste, Marseille, and Haifa, are located near clusters of scientific and industrial research facilities. By 2020, according to China’s Ministry of Transport, fifty-two ports in thirty-four coun

Now, in our work to develop integrated strategies for our most pressing national security challenges, we would provide the president with options differentiated by their level of risk to American interests and citizens, the resources required, and the prospect of their progressing toward national security and foreign policy goals and objectives. Th